Conjunctions

A conjunction (cónasc) is a word that connects clauses, phrases, or individual words. Irish has a rich variety of conjunctions, which can be categorised into several types based on their form and function.

In addition to single-word conjunctions, Irish frequently uses multi-word phrases, or “compound conjunctions”, to express complex relationships between ideas. Adverbs are also commonly used in a similar way to link clauses.

Types of Conjunctions

Conjunctions can be classified by their structure as either simple or compound.

Simple Conjunctions

Simple conjunctions consist of a single word. They are the most basic building blocks for connecting ideas.

Examples include:

• agus (and)
• ach (but)
• nó (or)
• go (that)
• ó (since)
• mar (because, as)
• Conditional words: má (if), dá (if), mura (if not)
• Interrogative words: cé (who), céard (what), cá (where), conas (how)
• Interrogative particles: an (whether), nach (whether not)

Compound Conjunctions

Compound conjunctions are multi-word phrases that function as a single unit. They are typically formed from a combination of other grammatical elements.

A compound conjunction often has two main parts:

1. A first element, which can be:

• A simple conjunction: ach, nó
• A simple preposition: le, faoi, mar
• A preposition and a noun (often a compound preposition): tar éis (after), de bhrí (because of), ar shlí (in a way)
• A noun alone: toisc (reason), cionn (reason), fad (length)
• A verb form: bíodh (let it be), cuir i gcás (suppose)
• An adjective: fiú (even), chomh luath (as soon)

2. A second element, which is often:

• The conjunction go/nach (that / that not)
• The relative particle a/nach (that / that not)
• The conditional conjunctions dá, má, mura (if / if not)
• The interrogative particle an/nach (whether / whether not)

An intervening agus (and), often shortened to is, frequently appears between the first and second elements. For example, i riocht is go (so that) is common alongside i riocht go.

Conjunctive Adverbs

Many adverbs in Irish can function like conjunctions by creating a logical link between two clauses. These are known as conjunctive adverbs.

They are often formed from a compound preposition combined with the third-person masculine possessive pronoun a and a demonstrative pronoun like sin.

• ina dhiaidh sin - nevertheless (literally “after that”)
• dá bhrí sin - therefore (literally “by reason of that”)

These adverbs often have a corresponding compound conjunction that introduces the other clause in the logical relationship.

• Conjunction: de bhrí go (because)

• Conjunctive Adverb: dá bhrí sin (therefore)

• Conjunction: i ndiaidh go (although)

• Conjunctive Adverb: ina dhiaidh sin (nevertheless)

Alternatives Using Infinitive Constructions

Instead of using a conjunction to introduce a subordinate clause, Irish often uses an infinitive construction (a phrase built around a verbal noun). In these cases, a preposition introduces the phrase instead of a conjunction.

• Subordinate Clause: toisc go bhfuil sé anseo - because he is here

• Infinitive Construction: toisc é a bheith anseo - because of him being here

• Subordinate Clause: le go mbuaileann sé an fear - so that he hits the man

• Infinitive Construction: leis an fear a bhualadh - to hit the man

These constructions are very common for expressing purpose, cause, and time relationships (before, after, while).

Coordinating Conjunctions

The distinction between coordinating and subordinating conjunctions is less critical in Irish than in some other languages because word order does not change in subordinate clauses. However, the concepts are still useful for understanding function. Coordinating conjunctions link elements of equal grammatical rank.

Inclusive Conjunctions

Inclusive conjunctions connect items in a list where all parts are included.

And

The word for “and” has two main forms: agus and the short form is.

• Tá mé sásta inniu agus bhí mé sásta inné. - I am happy today and was happy yesterday.
• Pól agus Seán - Paul and John
• Pól is Seán - Paul and John

Peculiarities of agus

In Enumerations In a list, Irish often places agus between every item (polysyndetic coordination), unlike English which typically uses “and” only before the last item.

• Pól agus Seán agus Séamas agus Dóirín a bhí ann. - Paul, John, James and Doreen were there.

However, agus is usually omitted between multiple adjectives describing the same noun (asyndetic coordination).

• an cailín óg álainn - the young, beautiful girl
• Tá an aimsir te tirim. - The weather is hot and dry.

When listing verbs, any verbal particle must be repeated after agus.

• Deir siad gur cheannaigh agus gur dhíol siad na tithe. - They say that they bought and sold the houses.

In Negative Enumerations In negative lists with gan (without), gan or ná is used instead of agus or nó.

• Tháinig sé gan ór gan airgead. - He came without gold and silver.
• gan bróg ná stoca - without shoe or stocking

Further Uses of agus

In Positive Answers Agus can be used to add an affirmation, similar to “also” or “too”.

• An bhfuil cead agam tobac a chaitheamh? - Tá agus fáilte. - May I smoke? - Yes, and you’re welcome.
• Ólfaidh mé fuisce. - Ólfaidh agus mise. - I will drink whiskey. - Me too.

With amhlaidh The phrase amhlaidh ... agus means “namely” or “that is to say”, often introducing a small clause that describes a state.

• Is amhlaidh a tháinig sé abhaile agus a shrón briste. - So he came home, with his nose broken.

With Imperatives Agus can connect two imperatives, where the second clause often expresses a result or purpose.

• Dún an doras agus ná gabhadh an bhó amach. - Close the door so that the cow doesn’t go out.

In Comparisons In comparisons of equality, agus means “as”. This is common after chomh (so) and other expressions of equality like ionann (equal) or a oiread (as much).

• chomh maith agus a rinne sé é - as well as he did it
• Ní hionann sin agus a bhí sé. - That is not as it was.
• Níl a leithéid de rud agus taibhsí ann. - There is no such thing as ghosts.

It also appears after words like thar (over), breis (more), and tuilleadh (more) to mean “than”.

• breis agus céad bliain ó shin - more than a hundred years ago

With Infinitive Constructions Instead of connecting two similar full clauses, Irish often replaces the second clause with a verbal noun construction after agus. This avoids repetition.

• Chuamar ann go bhfeicfimis é agus éisteacht leis. - We went there so that we could see him and listen to him. (Instead of: …agus go n-éistfimis leis)

For Circumstantial Description When agus is followed by an infinitive construction or a “small clause” (a clause where a form of bí is omitted), it describes a surrounding circumstance. The meaning can be temporal (while), causal (because), concessive (although), or conditional (if), depending on the context.

• D’imigh tú agus fearg ort. - You left in anger. (Literally: “You left and anger on you.”)
• Agus é ag gáire, thit sé go talamh. - While he was laughing, he fell to the ground.
• D’fhág sé an teach agus gan muid ach ag toiseacht. - He left the house, although we had barely started.

Both … and …

• Bhí Pól chomh maith le Seán sásta. - Both Paul and Seán were satisfied.
• Idir mhná agus fhir a bhí sásta. - Both men and women were satisfied.

Nor

The conjunction ná is used in negative contexts where English might use “and” or “or”. It appears after negative particles like ní and prepositions like gan (without).

• Ní maith liom tae ná caife. - I don’t like tea or coffee.
• Tháinig sé gan bróg ná stoca. - He came without shoe or stocking.

In negative answers, ná adds emphasis or another negative item.

• An raibh Pól ann? - Ní raibh, ná Seán. - Was Paul there? - No, and neither was John.

Neither … nor …

• Ní raibh Pól ná Seán sásta.* - Neither Paul nor Seán was satisfied.
• Ní íosfaidh mé agus ní ólfaidh mé.* - I will not eat and I will not drink.

And also not / and even less

To emphatically negate a second clause, you can use agus ní mó (and also not) or agus is lú (and even less).

• Ní raibh sé anseo agus ní mó a bhí sé ansin. - He was not here and he was not there either.
• Ní raibh sé sásta agus is lú a bhí mé sásta. - He was not satisfied, and I was even less satisfied.

On the one hand … on the other hand …

• Ar láimh amháin de bhí sé leisciúil, ar an láimh eile de rinne sé an obair go maith.* - On the one hand he was lazy, on the other hand he did the work well.

Furthermore, moreover

These are typically conjunctive adverbs:

• chomh maith leis sin
• ina theannta sin
• ar a bharr sin
• thairis sin

Namely, that is

• is é sin (le rá) (that is (to say))
• mar atá (as is)
• eadhon (abbreviated as .i.)

Exclusive Conjunctions

Exclusive conjunctions present a choice or contrast, where one part of the statement excludes another.

Or

The main word for “or” is nó.

• An raibh Pól nó Seán sásta inniu? - Was Paul or Seán happy today?

Further Uses of nó

With a Negation The combination ní ... nó can have a strong affirmative meaning, effectively reversing the negation.

• Ní chreidim nó tharla sé.* - I am convinced that it happened. (Literally: “I don’t believe or it happened,” implying “I don’t believe that it didn’t happen.”)
• Ní foláir nó tá aithne agat air.* - You must know him.

With cuma Cuma (it doesn’t matter, same) is followed by nó in the sense of “as”.

• Is cuma nó bás é. - It is the same as death.

As “for” Occasionally, nó can be used as a causal conjunction meaning “for”.

• …nó is léir nach bhfuil sé furasta. - …for it is obvious that it is not easy.

Either … or …

The phrase sin nó is used to express “either … or …”.

• Bhí Pól sásta, sin nó bhí Seán sásta. - Either Paul was satisfied, or Seán was satisfied.

Otherwise

After an imperative, nó means “otherwise”.

• Glaoigh air nó codlóidh sé go tráthnóna. - Call him, otherwise he’ll sleep until evening.

Other phrases for “otherwise” include nó neachtar acu and nó ceann éigin.

Contrastive Conjunctions

These conjunctions introduce an idea that contrasts with the preceding one.

But, however, rather

The main word for “but” is ach.

• Tá mé sásta inniu ach ní raibh mé sásta inné. - I am happy today, but I was not happy yesterday.

Other words like áfach (however) and mar sin féin (nevertheless) also express contrast.

Further Uses of ach

In Negative Answers Ach introduces a correction or alternative in a negative answer.

• An dochtúir é? - Ní hea, ach múinteoir. - Is he a doctor? - No, but a teacher.

Meaning “except” In negative sentences, ach often means “except”.

• Ní raibh aon duine ar bord ach cailín óg. - There was no one on board except a young girl.

Meaning “if” Ach can mean “if” when it connects a main clause in the conditional with a subordinate clause in the past indicative.

• D’imeoinn cheana ach ní raibh mé réidh. - I would have left already if I hadn’t been ready.

With Infinitive Constructions Like agus, ach can introduce an infinitive construction or small clause. It often has a restrictive or conditional meaning (“provided that”, “if”) or a temporal one (“as soon as”, “when”).

• Gheobhaidh tú é ach íoc as. - You’ll get it, provided you pay for it.
• Bhí sé sásta ach an leithscéal sin a ghabháil leis. - He was satisfied as soon as he received that apology.

For Reinforcement Ach can be used to reinforce a statement, similar to a modal particle.

• Céard eile a chonaic sí ansin ach capall? - What else did she see there but a horse?

Only

In a semi-negative sentence (ní ... ach), the structure means “only”.

• Ní raibh mé sásta ach inné.* - I was only satisfied yesterday. (Literally: “I was not satisfied but yesterday.”)

Not only … but also …

The phrase is ní hamháin ... ach ....

• Ní hamháin go bhfuil mé sásta inniu ach bhí mé sásta inné freisin.* - I am not only happy today, but I was also happy yesterday.

Except

• Níor leagadh aon chúram eile ormsa ach amháin fanacht leis. - No other task was imposed on me except to wait for him.
• daoine seachas eisean - people other than him

Subordinating Conjunctions

Subordinating conjunctions introduce a subordinate clause, which depends on a main clause to form a complete sentence.

Complementary Conjunctions

These conjunctions introduce a clause that functions as the subject or object of the main verb, completing its meaning.

That / that not

The most important complementary conjunction is go (that) and its negative form nach (that not).

• Deir sé go bhfuil deifir air. - He says that he is in a hurry.
• Dúirt sí nár fhoghlaim sí a cuid. - She said that she had not learned her part.

Circumstantial Conjunctions

These conjunctions describe the circumstances surrounding the main action, without specifying a strict causal or concessive link.

In view of the fact that (considering that)

• Ní haon ionadh sin agus gurb eisean do mhac. - That is no wonder, considering that he is your son.
• Ba cheart duit a bheith amuigh agus an lá chomh breá sin. - You should be outside, considering the day is so fine.

Causal Conjunctions

Causal conjunctions introduce a clause that gives the reason for the main clause’s action.

Because

Irish has a very wide variety of ways to say “because”.

• Bhí fearg air faoi go raibh siad ag déanamh gleo. - He was angry because they were making noise.
• Ní dheachaigh mé go hÉirinn de bharr go raibh mé tinn. - I did not go to Ireland because I was ill.

Since / for

Conjunctions like mar, óir, and arae function like “for” or “since”, introducing a reason. They are typically followed by a main clause structure, not a go-clause (except in indirect speech).

• Bhí faitíos roimpi mar bhí sí an-ard. - They were afraid of her, for she was very tall.
• Ós í an Ghaeilge an teanga náisiúnta… - Since Irish is the national language…

Therefore / for this reason

These are conjunctive adverbs that introduce a result.

• Déanaim smaoineamh, dá bhrí sin táim ann. - I think, therefore I am.

Concessive Conjunctions

Concessive conjunctions introduce a circumstance that hinders the main action but does not prevent it.

Although / even if

• Ní chreidim é cé go bhfeicim é. - I don’t believe it, although I see it.
• Má tá sé bocht féin, tá sé fial. - Although he is poor, he is generous.
• Dúirt sí liom gan dul amach dá mbeadh an lá te féin. - She told me not to go out, even if the day was warm.

Nevertheless / All the same

These are conjunctive adverbs that express a contrast despite a previously mentioned fact.

• Níor cheap mé go dtiocfadh sé; ina dhiaidh sin féin, tháinig. - I didn’t think he would come; nevertheless, he came.

Final Conjunctions

Final (or purposive) conjunctions introduce a clause that expresses the purpose or goal of the main action.

In order that / To

The verb in a final clause is typically in the future or conditional. The subjunctive can also be used.

• Déan deifir le go mbeidh tú réidh in am. - Hurry up so that you will be ready in time.
• Chuaigh sé abhaile sula bhfeictí é. - He went home so as not to be seen.
• Ná tugaigí breith ar eagla go dtabharfaí breith oraibh. - Judge not, lest ye be judged.

Consecutive Conjunctions

Consecutive conjunctions introduce a clause that expresses the result or consequence of the main action.

So that

These are often used after expressions like chomh ... sin (so … that).

• Bhí mé chomh tuirseach sin gur thit mé i mo chodladh. - I was so tired that I fell asleep.
• Chodail mé rófhada i riocht is go raibh mé déanach. - I overslept, so that I was late.

Restrictive Conjunctions

These conjunctions introduce a condition or limitation on the main clause.

Provided that / On condition that

• Tig leat é a bhriseadh ar chuntar go n-íocfaidh tú as. - You may break it, on condition that you pay for it.

As far as / As long as

• Níl aon eagla orm roimhe fad atá mo ghunna liom. - I am not afraid of him, as long as I have my gun with me.

Supposing that

• cuir i gcás go mbeadh sé ann* - supposing he were there
• abair go bhfuil an ceart agat* - supposing you are right

Conditional Conjunctions

Conditional conjunctions introduce a condition (protasis) upon which the main clause (apodosis) depends. Irish distinguishes between real (possible) and unreal (hypothetical) conditions.

If / In case

• Má bhíonn sé sásta, tiocfaidh na fir.* - If he is satisfied, the men will come. (Real)
• Dá mbeadh lá maith ann, dhéanfainn é.* - If it were a nice day, I would do it. (Unreal)

• Tiocfaidh fearg uirthi mura ndéanfar di é. - She will be angry if it is not done for her. (Real)

• Mura rachainn leis, ní fheicfinn í.* - If I had not gone with him, I would not have seen her. (Unreal)

If it were not the case that / Unless

The most common way to express this is with murach. It describes the consequences if a real, existing condition were absent.

• Ní chreidfinn é murach go bhfaca mé féin é. - I would not believe it if I had not seen it myself.

• Murach an balla, thitfeadh an teach.* - If it weren’t for the wall, the house would fall.

Conjunctions in Indirect Questions

These conjunctions introduce indirect or reported questions.

Whether

The verbal particles an (positive) and nach (negative) are used.

• Níl mé cinnte an bhfuil mé sásta. - I am not sure whether I am satisfied.
• Ní mé ar chuala sé é. - I wonder whether he heard it.

Whether … or (not)

• Níl a fhios agam an bhfuil mé sásta nó nach bhfuil. - I don’t know whether I am satisfied or not.
• Abair liom cé acu a bheidh tú ann nó nach mbeidh. - Tell me whether you will be there or not.

Conjunctions of Indifference

These conjunctions express that the outcome of the main clause is unaffected by the alternatives presented in the subordinate clause.

Whether … or (not) / Regardless of whether

• Is cuma liom pé acu atá tú sásta nó nach bhfuil. - I don’t care whether you are satisfied or not.
• Beimid ann, tagadh sé nó ná tagadh. - We will be there, whether he comes or not.

• Más maith olc leat é, caithfidh tú é a dhéanamh.* - Whether you like it or not, you have to do it.

Substitutive Conjunctions

These conjunctions introduce an action that takes the place of another.

Instead of

The phrases in áit, in ionad, and i leaba are used. They are prepositions that introduce an infinitive construction, not a full subordinate clause.

• Thuas a bhí sé, in áit a bheith farainne. - He was upstairs, instead of being with us.

• In ionad a dhul ag obair, chuaigh sé go dtí an pub.* - Instead of going to work, he went to the pub.

Comparative Conjunctions

These conjunctions introduce a clause of comparison.

As if

• Chorraigh sí ar nós dá mbeadh sí ag iarraidh éirí. - She moved as if she were trying to get up.
• Lean sé den obair faoi mar nach gcloisfeadh sé mé. - He continued the work as if he couldn’t hear me.

(Just) as

• D’fhág sí é sa chaoi a raibh sé. - She left it as it was.

• De réir mar a thuigim…* - As I understand it…

As … as / so … as

This comparison of equality is formed with chomh + adjective.

(Greater) than

This comparison of inequality is formed with níos + adjective + ná.

Temporal Conjunctions

Temporal conjunctions introduce a clause that specifies the time of the main action.

Until

• Fan nó go dtiocfaidh sé. - Wait until he comes.
• Ní thiocfaidh sé go bhfaighidh sé cuireadh. - He will not come until he gets an invitation.

Since / Ever since

The preposition ó is used as a conjunction, followed by a direct relative clause.

• Ní fhaca mé iad ó chuala mé an scéal. - I have not seen them since I heard the news.

As soon as

• Glaofaidh sí chomh luath is a thiocfaidh sí abhaile. - She will call as soon as she gets home.
• Inseoidh mé dó é ach a bhfeicfidh mé é. - I will tell him as soon as I see him.

Scarcely … when

This is expressed with the structure ní túisce ... ná ... (no sooner … than …).

• Ní túisce a bhí an focal ráite aige ná rith sé.* - Scarcely had he spoken the word when he ran.

Before

The main conjunction is sula (present/future) and sular (past).

• Phéinteáil sé an doras sular tháinig Pádraig. - He painted the door before Pádraig came.
• Beidh sé anseo sula dtiocfaidh mé ar ais. - He will be here before I come back.

While, as

• Bhí sé ag caoineadh fad a bhí sé ag caint liom. - He was crying while he was talking to me.

• Agus é ag gáire, thit sé go talamh.* - While he was laughing, he fell to the ground.

After

There is no single conjunction for “after”. Instead, Irish uses infinitive constructions with prepositions like tar éis or i ndiaidh.

• Tiocfaidh an bhean tar éis imeacht don fhear. - The woman will come after the man has gone.

Alternatively, nuair (when) is used with a perfect tense.

• Tiocfaidh an bhean nuair a bheas an fear imithe. - The woman will come when the man has gone.

When / As

The most common word is nuair, which is followed by a direct relative clause.

• Nuair a bhí mé óg, bhí mé i mo chónaí i nDún na nGall. - When I was young, I lived in Donegal.

Local Conjunctions

Local conjunctions introduce a clause specifying a location.

Where

• Fan san áit a bhfuil tú. - Stay where you are.
• Lorg iad mar ar chuir tú iad. - Look for them where you put them.
• Níl a fhios agam cá bhfuil tú. - I don’t know where you are.