Traditional Verb Conjugation

This page provides a reference for the traditional system of Irish verb conjugation. Many of these forms are now considered archaic in the Official Standard but are essential for understanding dialectal variations, especially in Munster, and for reading older texts. They form the historical basis from which modern analytic (“separate”) forms developed.

The Traditional System

The tables of traditional verb forms show a more “synthetic” system, where the verb ending itself indicates the person (e.g., buailim, “I strike”). Modern Irish, particularly in Connacht and Ulster, increasingly prefers “analytic” forms, where a standard verb form is followed by a separate pronoun (e.g., buaileann mé, “I strike”).

These traditional forms are presented here in modern orthography, but they are the direct ancestors of forms you might see in older literature with different spellings.

Parentheses in endings like -f(a)idh indicate that the vowel depends on the verb stem’s quality. A broad stem takes a (dúnfaidh), while a slender stem takes e (written as i in -fidh, e.g., buailfidh).

Dialectal Differences

The traditional conjugation system has evolved differently across the main dialect areas. The Official Standard (An Caighdeán Oifigiúil) often prescribes forms that are a compromise or are based on older literary norms, which may not perfectly match any single spoken dialect.

Endings with -t- or -th-

Historically, the choice between -t- and -th- in endings like the autonomous imperfect (-t(a)í / -th(a)í) was governed by the preceding sound.

• -t- was used after d, l, n, s, t, th.
• -th- was used in all other cases.

When -th- followed voiced consonants like b or g, it devoiced them to [p] and [k].

• scuabthaí [scuapiː] - one swept
• scuabthar [scuapər] - one sweeps

The modern standard simplifies this by using -t- in almost all cases (e.g., scuabtar). However, the older -th- forms are still found in many dialects. The verbal adjective also retains -th- after certain consonants (e.g., scuabtha, “swept”).

Differences Between 1st and 2nd Conjugation

The primary difference between the two regular verb conjugations is the future tense marker: -f- for the 1st conjugation and -ó- (or -eó-) for the 2nd. This distinction is maintained in all dialects.

In northern Donegal, the -igh stem ending of 2nd conjugation verbs is often dropped before another ending is added, making them look like 1st conjugation verbs in some tenses.

• ceannann sé - he buys (Standard and other dialects: ceannaíonn sé)

Conversely, for some monosyllabic 1st conjugation verbs ending in -igh, this ending is sometimes preserved in dialects when it is dropped in the standard.

Present Tense

Analytic Forms

The common present tense ending -(e)ann was originally only used in dependent positions (e.g., after ní). The independent form used -(a)idh.

The relative form -(e)as (e.g., an fear a bhuaileas an liathróid, “the man who hits the ball”) is optional in the Standard but common in Ulster and Connacht, often as -(e)anns. It is not used in Munster.

Synthetic Forms

• 1st Person Singular -(a)im: Used and generally required in all dialects. Buailim is standard; buaileann mé is rare.
• 1st Person Plural -(a)imid: Required in the Standard and in Munster (often pronounced -[iːdʲ]). In Connacht and Ulster, the analytic form ... muid is far more common: buaileann muid.
• 2nd Person Singular -(a)ir: Rare now, largely replaced by analytic forms. It survives in a few phrases, especially in Munster: Cad deirir? (What do you say?).
• 3rd Person Plural -(a)id: Common in Munster (usually with siad) and Connemara. It can be used synthetically or analytically: buailid or buailid siad (they strike).

Preterite Tense

Analytic Forms

The analytic preterite is always endingless (e.g., bhris sé, “he broke”). The -igh of 2nd conjugation verbs is pronounced [ig′] in Munster.

Synthetic Forms

• 1st Plural -(e)amair and 3rd Plural -(e)adar: Used in Connacht and Munster.
• 2nd Plural -(e)abhair: Used only in Munster.

These synthetic forms are obligatory in West Munster. The 1st and 2nd person singular forms (-as, -is) are used regularly in Munster but typically only as echo forms elsewhere.

Imperfect Tense

The imperfect forms are largely consistent with the Standard across dialects.

• The 1st person plural -(a)imis has variants like -(e)amais or with a long í in Munster.
• In Connacht, the analytic form ... muid is common for the 1st person plural: bhuaileadh muid (we used to strike).

Future Tense

Synthetic future forms are now mainly used in Munster. Elsewhere, they survive mostly in echo forms or for the 1st person plural.

• The 1st person plural -(f)imid has variants like -(f)eamuid or -(f)eam.
• The relative form -(f)eas is common in Connacht (-ós) and Ulster (-óchas for 2nd conj.) but absent in Munster.
• The autonomous form was originally -f(a)idhear, and dialectal pronunciations often reflect this with a long [iːr] sound.

Conditional Mood

The synthetic conditional forms are preserved in the Standard (except for the obsolete 2nd person plural).

• Variants of -(a)imis exist, similar to the imperfect.

Imperative Mood

The standard 2nd person plural is now -igí. The older form -(a)idh survived longest in Munster (pronounced [ig′] or [iːg′]). The 1st person plural has several variants: -(a)imis (Standard), -(e)am, or -(a)imid.

Present Subjunctive

Analytic Forms

The standard ending is now written -a or -e (e.g., go raibh maith agat). This reflects the pronunciation and the older dependent form.

Synthetic Forms

Only the 1st person plural (-aimid) is required in the Standard. Other forms (-ad, -air, -aid) are optional in Munster.

Past Subjunctive

The main distinction from the conditional is seen with the verb bí. The past subjunctive is dá mbeadh, never *dá mbíodh. Note also the use of -t- instead of -f- in the 2nd person forms: dá mbeitheá (you would be), dá mbeití (one would be).