Tense, Mood, Voice, and Aspect

Verbs in Irish change their form to express four key properties: tense, mood, voice, and aspect. These categories describe the time of an action (tense), its reality or likelihood (mood), whether the subject is performing or receiving the action (voice), and its duration or completion (aspect). Understanding these concepts is essential for constructing meaningful sentences.

Tense

Tense (an aimsir) determines the time of an action, whether it takes place in the present, future, or past. Irish verbs have eight simple tenses (aimsirí simplí), which are formed by adding specific endings to the verb stem.

Traditionally, these tenses are divided into two groups:

• Primary tenses (aimsirí príomha): Present, Habitual Present, Future, Present Subjunctive, and Imperative.
• Past tenses (aimsirí stairiúla): Preterite, Imperfect, Past Subjunctive, and Conditional.

A key feature of past tenses is that they often begin with lenition and a d' prefix (e.g., bhris, d'ól). This is a remnant of the old past tense particle do.

In addition to simple tenses, Irish uses compound tenses (aimsirí comhshuite) to express more complex aspects, such as an ongoing action (progressive) or a completed action (perfect). These are formed using the auxiliary verb bí (to be) along with a verbal noun or verbal adjective.

The Present and Habitual Present

In the present, Irish distinguishes between two aspects: non-habitual (a single event happening now) and habitual (an action that happens regularly). This results in two distinct present tenses.

• Simple Present (an aimsir láithreach) describes a punctual action happening at the current moment.
• Habitual Present (an aimsir ghnáthláithreach) describes an action that happens regularly, such as always, often, sometimes, or never.

The verb bí has separate forms for each.

For all other verbs, a single present tense form is used, but its meaning depends on the context and dialect.

• In written language, the present tense form can be either simple or habitual, depending on the context. It is common in sports commentary, news reports, and formal rituals.

  • Cromann sí síos, ardaíonn an sliotar agus buaileann, agus téann sé thar an trasnán. - She bends down, lifts the sliotar and strikes it, and it goes over the crossbar.
  • Baistím thú in ainm an Athar agus an Mhic agus an Spioraid Naoimh. - I baptise you in the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit.

• In colloquial language, the meaning depends on the type of verb:

  • For verbs of thinking, feeling, and perception, the present form can be simple or habitual.
    • Feiceann sé anois. - He sees now. (simple)
    • Feiceann sé go minic. - He sees often. (habitual)
  • For all other verbs, the present form is almost always understood as habitual.
    • Glanann sé go minic. - He cleans often.
    • Ólaim tae le bainne. - I (usually) drink tea with milk.
  • To express a simple, non-habitual action for these verbs, speakers use the progressive aspect.
    • Tá sé ag glanadh anois. - He is cleaning now.
    • Tá mé ag ól tae le bainne. - I am drinking tea with milk right now.

Relative Form in the Present

In a direct relative clause, the 3rd person present tense has a special form ending in -s.

• an fear a ghlana(nn)s an carr - the man who cleans the car

The relative form of tá is atá, and the relative form of bíonn is a bhíos.

Present Instead of Future

Using the present tense to talk about the future is generally not common in Irish; the future tense is preferred.

• Tiocfaimid amárach. - We will come tomorrow.

An exception is the verb bí. The simple present tá is often used for a fixed future event. This also allows the progressive aspect to be used for the future.

• Táimid ag filleadh amárach. - We are returning tomorrow.

In real conditional clauses with bí, tá can be used instead of the future to express certainty. For other verbs, the perfect (tá + verbal adjective) is used.

Furthermore, the future tense is not used after má (if) and cha (not, Ulster). The habitual present is used instead.

tá Instead of bíonn

When an action or state is assumed to be ongoing, the simple present tá is used instead of the habitual bíonn.

• Tá mé i mo chónaí i nGaillimh. - I live in Galway. (implying now and for the foreseeable future)

The Gnomic Present

The habitual present is used for general, timeless statements or observations (gnomic statements).

• Itheann na beithígh féar. - Cows eat grass.
• Fithisíonn an Domhan an ghrian. - The Earth orbits the sun.

The simple present tá is used for circumstances that are always true.

• Tá an fharraige goirt. - The sea is salty.

The habitual present bíonn is used for circumstances that recur but are not constant.

• Bíonn sé fuar istoíche. - It is cold at night.

For punctual events that occur on specific occasions, the future tense is often used (a “gnomic future”). This is common in clauses introduced by nuair (when) or má (if).

• Nuair atá an duilleog feoite, is beag an t-aithleá a scoiltfidh den chraobh í. - When the leaf is withered, a mere breath of wind will separate it from the branch.
• Ní íosfaidh aon bhó é. - No cow eats it (if it encounters it while grazing).

The Historical Present

The historical present is a stylistic device used in narratives to make past events more vivid.

In literature, an analytic form ending in -(e)as is sometimes used.

• Glanas Seán é. - Seán cleans/cleaned it.
• Ritheas Oilill isteach. - Oilill runs/ran in.

The simple present form tá can never be used as a historical present. Instead, bíonn is used. In Ulster, the preterite bhí is used.

The Preterite

The preterite (an aimsir chaite) describes a single, completed action in the past. It is the standard narrative tense and is used much more frequently than in some other languages, often corresponding to the perfect and pluperfect as well.

• Thug sé dom é. - He gave it to me / He has given it to me / He had given it to me.
• Rinne sé é. - He did it / He has done it / He had done it.

It can even be used for the future perfect.

• Nuair a bheas do chnámha trína chéile… cá ndeachaigh lasadh ná gile d’éadain? - When your bones are scattered… where will the glow and brightness of your face have gone? (literally: “…where went…”)

For recurring or long-lasting past actions, the imperfect is used instead.

Independent verbs in the preterite are lenited. This is caused by the historical past particle do. Before a vowel or fh-, a d' prefix appears.

• Bhuail mé é. - I hit him.
• D’ól mé é. - I drank it.

The autonomous form is not lenited (except for some irregular verbs) and does not take the d' prefix. Before a vowel, it historically took an h- prefix from do h-.

• Buaileadh é. - He was hit.
• Níor buaileadh é. - He was not hit.
• Hóladh é. - It was drunk.
• Níor hóladh é. - It was not drunk.

The Imperfect or Habitual Preterite

The imperfect (an aimsir neamhfhoirfe) is the habitual form of the past. It describes a recurring or long-lasting action, similar to “used to” in English. Its form is identical to the subjunctive preterite, but as a past tense, it triggers lenition and the d' prefix.

• Dhéanadh sé an obair go maith. - He used to do the work well.
• D’óladh sé gach lá. - He drank every day.

Compare the difference with the preterite:

• Preterite: Bhuail sé é. - He hit him (once).
• Imperfect: Bhuaileadh sé é. - He used to hit him / He was hitting him (repeatedly).

The imperfect is common after phrases with gach (every).

• gach uair dá dtéadh sé - every time he went

The Future

The future tense (an aimsir fháistineach) is used for future events.

• Rachaidh mé go Gaillimh. - I will go to Galway.

It can also be used to:

• Express a desire: Beidh deoch agam. - I want to have a drink.
• Give instructions: Rachaidh tú síos go dtí an droichead. - Go down to the bridge.
• Ask for instructions or make an offer: An osclóidh mé an fhuinneog? - Shall I open the window?
• Express ability: Ní inseofar an ghlóir fhlaithiúnais. - One cannot describe heavenly glory.

As noted earlier, after má (if) and cha (not), the habitual present is used instead of the future.

• Glanfaidh tú (you will clean) becomes má ghlanann tú (if you clean).

In a direct relative clause, the future has a special form ending in -s.

• an fear a ghlanfas an carr - the man who will clean the car

Mood

Mood (an modh) indicates the speaker’s attitude toward the reality of an action, such as whether it is a fact, a possibility, a command, or a condition.

The Indicative

The indicative (an modh táscach) is the mood of reality. It is used to state facts and is the most common mood, used in all the tenses described above (present, preterite, future, etc.).

The Indicative of Certainty

In conditional sentences, certain indicative forms can be used in the result clause (apodosis) to emphasise the certainty of the outcome if the condition is met.

• Present instead of Future (with bí): In a real conditional clause, tá can replace the future to stress certainty.
  • Má théann tú ann tá deireadh leat. - If you go there, it is your end.
• Perfect instead of Future: The perfect (tá + verbal adjective) can replace the future.
  • Má chloistear thú tá tú gafa. - If you are heard, then you are already caught.
• Pluperfect instead of Conditional: In an unreal conditional clause, the pluperfect can replace the conditional.
  • Murach í bhí sé imithe. - If it weren’t for her, he would certainly have gone.
• Preterite instead of Conditional: In an unreal conditional clause, the preterite can replace the conditional.
  • Muna mbeadh tusa, do bhíos marbh acu. - If you had not been there, they would certainly have killed me.

The Conditional

The conditional (an modh coinníollach) is the mood of possibility, corresponding to “would” in English. The action depends on a condition, which may or may not be stated. The Irish conditional has only one form and can refer to the past, present, or future depending on context.

• Rachainn inniu. - I would go today.
• Rachainn amárach. - I would go tomorrow.
• Rachainn inné. - I would have gone yesterday.

Like other past tenses, the conditional triggers lenition and the d' prefix.

• Dhéanfadh sé an obair. - He would do the work.
• D’ólfadh sé. - He would drink.

The conditional is used in several contexts:

• Unreal conditions: Thiocfadh sé dá… - He would come if…
• In the dá/mura clause itself: …dá mbeadh an t-am aige. - …if he had the time.
• As a secondary future (in indirect speech): Dúirt sé go mbeadh sé ann. - He said he would be there.
• For polite requests: An dtabharfá dom an t-im, le do thoil? - Would you please give me the butter?
• In comparisons with mar (as if): Bhog sé a cheann mar a bheadh sé ag seinm. - He moved his head as if he were playing music.
• To express anger or impatience: Bhrisfinn a mhuineáil! - I could break his neck!
• After dóbair (almost): Dóbair go dtitfinn. - I almost fell.
• After b'fhéidir (perhaps) to express uncertainty: B’fhéidir go mbeadh sí ann. - Perhaps she will be there.
• In rhetorical questions: Cad a dhéanfadh mac an chait ach luch a mharú? - What else would a cat’s son do but kill a mouse? (Like father, like son.)
• Instead of the imperfect (like “would” for “used to” in English).

The Imperative

The imperative (an modh ordaitheach) is the command form, used for orders and requests.

• 2nd Person (Primary Imperative): This is the base form of the verb.

  • Glan! - Clean! (singular)
  • Glanaigí! - Clean! (plural)

• Other Persons (Secondary Imperative): Other moods are used to form commands for other persons.

  • 1st Person Singular (“Let me…”): Uses the habitual present form.
    • Glanaim! - Let me clean!
  • 3rd Person (“He/She/They shall…”): Uses the subjunctive preterite form, but without mutation.
    • Glanadh sé! - Let him clean!
  • 1st Person Plural (“Let us…”): Also uses the subjunctive preterite form.
    • Glanaimis! - Let’s clean!
    • Téimís! - Let’s go!

The negative imperative uses the special particle ná, which causes no mutation.

• Ná glan é! - Don’t clean it!
• Ná habair é! - Don’t say it! / You’re welcome.

Uses of the Imperative

Besides direct commands, the imperative is used for:

• General prohibitions (autonomous form): Common on signs.
  • Ná caitear tobac! - No smoking!
  • Ná páirceáiltear anseo! - No parking here!
• Expressing indifference:
  • bíodh sé sásta nó ná bíodh - whether he is satisfied or not
  • déanaim é nó ná déanaim - whether I do it or not
• Concessive clauses (“although”):
  • Bíodh nach dtuigim é, tuigim as. - Although I don’t understand it, I get the gist.
• Formulaic interjections:
  • Abair é! - You’re right!
• Citation form of verbs: The 2nd person singular imperative is the dictionary form of a verb, e.g., déan (to do/make).

The Subjunctive

The subjunctive (an modh foshuiteach) is the mood of possibility, used for actions that are wished for, hypothetical, or uncertain. It only appears in dependent clauses after certain conjunctions.

• Present Subjunctive: Refers to a future possibility. It is often replaced by the future indicative in modern speech.
• Past Subjunctive: Can refer to the past, present, or future. Its form is identical to the imperfect. It is often replaced by the conditional.

The subjunctive is used in the following cases:

• Wishes and curses (Optative): With go (positive) or nár (negative).
  • Go raibh maith agat! - Thank you! (Literally: May there be good at you!)
  • Nár éirí sin leat! - May you not succeed in that!
• After temporal conjunctions (go, sula): For incomplete future actions.
  • Fan go dtaga mé. - Wait until I come.
  • …go scara an bás sinn. - …until death do us part.
• After final conjunctions (go, sula): To express purpose (“so that”, “lest”).
  • Chuaigh sé abhaile sula bhfeictí é. - He went home so as not to be seen.
• In real conditional clauses after mura: To express an uncertain future condition.
  • Cad a dhéanfaidh tú mura dtaga an traein? - What will you do if the train doesn’t come?
• In unreal conditional clauses after dá/mura:
  • Ní íosfainn an fheoil sin dá bhfaighinn bás den ocras. - I would not eat that meat even if I were to die of hunger.
• In exclamations of wish or regret (“If only…”):
  • Dá níodh sé na soithí! - If only he had washed the dishes!

Voice

Voice (an fhaí) shows whether the subject of the sentence is performing the action (active) or having the action performed on it (passive).

The Active Voice

In the active voice (an fhaí ghníomhach), the subject performs the action. This is the standard form for most verbs.

• Glanann sé an carr. - He cleans the car.

The Passive Voice

In the passive voice (an fhaí chéasta), the subject receives the action. Irish does not have a simple passive verb ending. Instead, it uses several compound (periphrastic) constructions. The agent (the one doing the action) is usually marked with the preposition ag.

Resultative Perfect Passive

This form uses bí + verbal adjective and describes the state resulting from an action. It also functions as the active perfect tense.

• Tá an bord briste agam. - The table has been broken by me. / I have broken the table.

Terminative Perfect Passive

This form uses bí + tar éis + possessive pronoun + verbal noun. It is less common and emphasises that the action has just been completed.

• Tá an bhó tar éis a bléan. - The cow has just been milked.

Progressive Passive

This form uses bí + á (ag + possessive pronoun) + verbal noun. It describes an action that is currently in progress.

• Tá an teach á thógáil agam. - The house is being built by me.

Prospective Passive

This form uses bí + le + verbal noun. It indicates that an action is to be done.

• Tá an balla le péinteáil agam. - The wall is to be painted by me.

Passive with faigh

Influenced by English (“get done”), the verb faigh (get) can be used with a verbal adjective to form a passive.

• Fuair sé gortaithe. - He was injured. (He got hurt.)

Autonomous Form instead of Passive

The autonomous form is grammatically active (the thing being acted on is the object), but it often translates as a passive. Its main purpose is to leave the agent unspecified.

• Briseadh an bord. - The table was broken. / One broke the table.
• Déantar é. - It is done. / One does it.

Aspect

Aspect (an ghné) describes the duration or type of temporal activity, such as whether an action is ongoing, completed, or habitual.

Irish can express several aspects grammatically:

• Habitual: Recurring actions (Habitual Present, Imperfect).
• Progressive: Ongoing actions (bí + ag + verbal noun).
• Resultative: The state after an action is completed (bí + verbal adjective).
• Terminative: The recent completion of an action (bí + tar éis + verbal noun).
• Prospective: Actions that are expected or intended (bí + le + verbal noun).

Perfect Tenses

Perfect tenses describe completed actions. They are used less frequently in Irish than in English, with the preterite often being preferred. Irish has two main ways to form the perfect, each with a different aspectual meaning.

• Resultative Perfect (with the verbal adjective): Emphasises the state or result of the action.
• Terminative Perfect (with tar éis): Emphasises that the action was just recently completed.

These can be formed in any tense or mood by changing the form of the auxiliary verb bí.

Formation with the Verbal Adjective

This construction is formed with a form of bí + object + verbal adjective + ag + subject. Although it functions as an active perfect (“I have done it”), its structure is formally passive (“It is done by me”).

• Transitive verbs:
  • Tá an litir scríofa aici. - She has written the letter.
• Verbs with indirect objects: The preposition is retained.
  • Tá beirthe agam ort. - I have caught you. (from beir ar)
• Intransitive verbs:
  • Tá siad imithe go hÉirinn. - They have gone to Ireland.

Formation with tar éis and the Verbal Noun

This construction is formed with bí + subject + tar éis + verbal noun phrase. In Ulster, i ndiaidh is used instead of tar éis. It emphasises that an action has just been completed.

• Intransitive: Tá mé tar éis snámh. - I have just swum.
• Transitive: Tá sé tar éis an litir a scríobh. - He has just written the letter.

Mixed Perfect

A combination of the two perfect forms is possible, using tar éis bheith + verbal adjective. This form is passive and emphasises the recent completion of an action.

• Tá sé tar éis bheith déanta aige. - It has just been completed by him.

The Progressive Aspect

The progressive aspect describes an ongoing action and is formed with bí + ag + verbal noun. It can be used in any tense or mood.

• Present Progressive: Tá mé ag féachaint ar an teilifís. - I am watching television. (This is the standard way to express a simple present action in speech.)
• Habitual Present Progressive: Bím ag féachaint ar an teilifís sa tráthnóna. - I usually watch television in the evening.
• Preterite Progressive: Bhí mé ag siúl nuair a chonaic mé é. - I was walking when I saw him.

The Intentional Form

This form expresses an action that is about to happen, using constructions like ar tí (about to).

• Bhí mé ar tí an carr a dhíol. - I was about to sell the car.

bí + le + Verbal Noun

This prospective construction expresses purpose, duty, necessity, or possibility. With transitive verbs, it is passive.

• Tá an obair le déanamh agam. - The work is to be done by me. / I have to do the work.