Syntax

The Irish verbal noun is a versatile form that functions both as a noun and as the equivalent of an infinitive. Understanding its syntax is important for building complex sentences. Its uses can be broadly divided into two categories: infinitive-like uses and noun-like (substantival) uses.

The main infinitive-like uses are:

• Periphrastic constructions: These use the verbal noun with the verb bí to form compound tenses, such as the progressive aspect (“is doing”).
• Infinitive constructions: These are non-finite clauses that function as sentence components, similar to subordinate clauses. They can act as the subject or object of a main clause.
• Attributive use: The verbal noun can act as an attribute to a noun, similar to an English present participle (e.g., “the singing man”).

This separation is not absolute, and some constructions can be adapted for different roles.

Periphrastic Constructions

Periphrastic constructions, also known as compound tenses or secondary tenses, use an auxiliary verb with a verbal noun to express aspects of an action that simple tenses cannot. In Irish, the auxiliary verb is bí (“to be”).

The verbal noun is used to form:

• The progressive aspect (actions in progress).
• The prospective aspect (intended actions).
• The terminative aspect (a form of the perfect, for completed actions).

The basic structure is an inflected form of bí, followed by a preposition and the verbal noun. The choice of preposition determines the aspect. Together, the preposition and verbal noun form the predicate of the sentence.

How direct objects are handled depends on the aspect. In the progressive, the object follows the verbal noun in the genitive case. In prospective and perfect constructions, the object comes before the verbal noun, linked by the particle a.

The Progressive Aspect

The progressive aspect describes actions that are currently in progress, similar to the English “-ing” forms. In colloquial Irish, the progressive present is the standard way to talk about actions happening now, while the simple present typically expresses habitual actions.

Formation

The Irish progressive is formed with the auxiliary verb bí (“to be”), a preposition (usually ag), and a verbal noun. This is conceptually similar to colloquial phrases like “I am at reading”.

The Preposition ag

In the progressive aspect, the preposition ag is often treated as a “progressive particle”, and its pronunciation is frequently reduced in normal speech.

• [əg] or [əg’] after a consonant and before a vowel:
  • Tá Seán ag ól. - Seán is drinking.
• [g] or [g’] between vowels (the a- [ə] of ag is dropped):
  • Tá tú ag ól. - You are drinking.
• [ə] between consonants (the -g [g]/[g’] is dropped):
  • Tá Pádraig ag léamh. - Pádraig is reading.
• Silent after a vowel and before a consonant:
  • Tá Síle ag léamh. - Síle is reading.

Tense of the Verb bí

The auxiliary verb bí can be in any tense or mood, creating a progressive present, past, future, and so on.

Progressive Aspect without bí

In certain contexts, the form of bí is omitted, leaving a “small clause”. This structure can then function as the object or subject of another verb.

This occurs with several types of introductory verbs:

• Verbs of perception (e.g., feic - to see, clois - to hear). This expresses perceiving someone in the middle of an action. The subject of the progressive is the object of the main verb.
  • Feicim an fear ag foghlaim. - I see the man learning.
  • Cloiseann tú Seán ag teacht. - You hear Seán coming.
  • When the object is a pronoun, it often follows the verbal noun: Nuair a chonaic mé ag imeacht thú… - When I saw you leaving…
• Verbs of movement (e.g., téigh - to go, tar - to come). This often describes the manner of movement.
  • Tagann siad ag siúl agus ag léim. - They come walking and jumping.
  • This can also express purpose: Tagann sé ag foghlaim Gaeilge. - He comes to learn Irish.
• Verbs of beginning, ending, or continuing (e.g., tosaigh - to begin, stad - to stop, lean - to continue).
  • Thosaigh mé ag ól. - I began to drink.
  • Choinnigh sé ag cur ceisteanna. - He kept asking questions.
  • Chaith mé dhá bhliain ag scríobh gearrscéaltaí. - I spent two years writing short stories.
• The verb cuir (to put, place) in a causative sense: to make someone do something.
  • Cuirfidh sé ag gáire thú. - It will make you laugh.
  • Chuir mé ag scríobh na litreach é. - I made him write the letter.
• The verb tarlaigh (to happen).
  • Tharla é ag dul abhaile nuair… - It happened that he was going home when…

These small clauses can also appear without any introductory verb, often with the conjunction agus in a temporal sense.

• Agus é ag gáire thit sé go talamh. - While he was laughing, he fell to the ground.

The Verbal Noun in the Progressive

Almost any verbal noun can be used in the progressive aspect. The main exception is bheith, the verbal noun of bí. A form like *ag beith is not possible. Instead of saying “Tá mé ag beith cúramach”, you simply say Tá mé cúramach (I am careful).

After the preposition ag, the verbal noun is not lenited. Since ag takes the dative case, some verbal nouns may appear in their dative form in certain dialects, though for most the dative is identical to the nominative.

• Tá an capall ag seitrigh. - The horse is neighing. (Dative of seitreach).

Subject of the Progressive

The subject can be any person, singular or plural.

• Tá mé / Táim ag teacht. - I am coming.
• Tá Pól ag teacht. - Paul is coming.

The autonomous form of bí (táthar) creates an impersonal progressive, where no agent is named.

• Táthar ag teacht. - One is coming. / Someone is coming.
• Táthar ag múineadh na teanga. - The language is being taught.

This active autonomous form is similar in meaning to the progressive passive, but with the autonomous form, an agent cannot be specified.

Intransitive Progressive

This is the progressive aspect without a direct object. Any indirect objects or prepositional phrases follow the verbal noun.

Transitive Progressive

This is the progressive aspect with a direct object. The structure depends on whether the object is a noun or a pronoun.

With a Noun as Object

A noun object follows the verbal noun and is put in the genitive case.

Indefinite objects are usually not lenited, but lenition is common in a few frequent expressions.

• Tá siad ag baint phrátaí. - They are harvesting potatoes.
• Tá sé ag fáil bháis. - He is dying.

Definite objects, like proper names, are usually lenited.

• Tá sé ag moladh Mháire. - He is praising Máire.

With a Pronoun as Object

When the object is a pronoun, a possessive pronoun is used instead of a personal pronoun. The preposition changes from ag to do. The combination of do + a (his/her/its/their) becomes á.

Here are the standard forms:

To make the active form unambiguous, an emphatic suffix can be added to the verbal noun, which emphasizes the object.

• Tá tú do mo mholadhsa. - You are praising me.

For reflexive actions (“hitting himself”), the pronoun féin is added.

• Tá sí á bualadh féin. - She is hitting herself.

With a Clause as Object

When a go/nach clause is the object, the form á (a proleptic pronoun anticipating the clause) is often used instead of ag, especially in Munster.

• Tá mé á rá go bhfuil tú sásta. - I am saying that you are satisfied.
• Outside Munster, ag is more common: Tá mé ag rá go bhfuil tú sásta.

With an Infinitive Construction as Object

A second verbal noun construction as an object simply follows the first.

• Tá mé ag iarraidh é a fhiafraí de. - I am trying to ask him it.

With a Separated Noun Object

If the object is moved away from the verbal noun (e.g., for emphasis in a cleft sentence or in a relative clause), the preposition changes from ag to a (which causes lenition).

• In a relative clause: an obair atá Pól a dhéanamh - the work that Paul is doing.
• In a question: Céard atá Pól a dhéanamh? - What is Paul doing?
• In a fronted negative: Pingin ní raibh mé a shaorú. - I did not earn a penny.

Reflexive Progressive

The reflexive progressive (“he is hitting himself”) is formed like the transitive progressive with a pronoun object, but the reflexive pronoun féin (“self”) must be added. The possessive pronoun refers back to the subject.

Progressive Passive

The progressive passive (“the house is being built”) has the same structure as the transitive progressive with a pronoun object. The key difference is that the possessive pronoun is always reflexive, referring back to the subject of the sentence.

• Tá mé do mo bhualadh. - I am being beaten.
• Tá siad á mbualadh. - They are being beaten.

As noted before, this can be ambiguous in the 3rd person. To remove ambiguity, an agent can be added with the preposition ag.

Progressive Aspect in Relative Clauses

Subject as Antecedent

When the subject of the progressive action is the antecedent of a relative clause, a direct relative clause is used and the structure remains unchanged (with ag).

• an fear atá ag déanamh na hoibre - the man who is doing the work
• Cé atá ag damhsa ansin? - Who is dancing there?

Often, the relative particle and the verb bí are omitted, leaving the verbal noun phrase to function like a participle.

• Casadh fear dóibh ag dul aníos an bóthar. - They met a man going up the road.

Direct Object as Antecedent

When the direct object is the antecedent, the preposition ag changes to a (with lenition).

• an obair atá an fear a dhéanamh - the work that the man is doing
• Cad é atá tú a dhéanamh? - What are you doing?

Perfect Progressive

The perfect progressive is for actions that have just been completed but were in progress for a period. It is formed with tar éis (“after”) + bheith + the normal progressive construction.

• Tá mé tar éis bheith ag léamh an nuachtáin. - I have just been reading the newspaper.

Other Periphrastic Constructions

Other prepositions besides ag are used with bí and a verbal noun to create different meanings.

With the Preposition le

This construction expresses purpose, intention, duty, necessity, or possibility. Its meaning changes depending on whether the verb is transitive or intransitive.

• With intransitive verbs, it is active and expresses a future or intended action (prospective aspect).
  • Tá mé le teacht. - I intend to come / I am expected to come.
  • an t-am atá le teacht - the time that is to come.
• With transitive verbs, it is passive and expresses necessity or possibility, similar to “is to be…”.
  • Tá sé le feiceáil. - It is to be seen.
  • Tá sé le déanamh. - It is to be done.
  • An agent can be added with ag: Tá obair le déanamh agam. - I have work to do. (Work is to be done by me).

With the Preposition chun

This form prospectively expresses that something is about to happen, either intentionally or simply in the future. It is always active.

• Tá na páistí chun dul abhaile. - The children intend to/will go home.
• Tá an ghaoth chun séideadh níos measa. - The wind will blow worse.

It can also mean that someone is ready or something is ripe for an action. In this use, the verbal noun is in the genitive.

• Tá an féar chun gearrtha. - The grass is ripe to be cut.

With the Preposition gan

This form expresses that something has not been done. It is resultative, focusing on the state resulting from the non-action. It is active with intransitive verbs and passive with transitive verbs.

• Tá an leabhar seo gan scríobh fós. - This book has not yet been written.
• Bhí mé gan aon bhlúire bia a ithe. - I had not eaten a bite of food.

With the Preposition ar

This preposition has two distinct uses in periphrastic constructions.

1. Continuous State (Passive): Used with a limited set of verbal nouns to describe a state. Ar does not cause lenition here.

   • Tá sé ar oscailt. - It is open.
   • Tá an leabhar ar fáil. - The book is available.
   • Tá an pictiúr ar crochadh. - The picture is hanging.

2. Perfect Passive (ar < iar): The form arna (ar + a) is used to express a perfect passive, common in formal or official texts.

   • arna chur in eagar ag Niall Ó Dónaill - edited by Niall Ó Dónaill
   • arna fhoilsiú ag Oifig an tSoláthair - published by the Stationery Office

Infinitive Constructions

The Irish verbal noun serves as the substitute for an infinitive. These “infinitive constructions” are non-finite clauses that can have their own subjects and objects, making them more versatile than English infinitives.

Simple Infinitive Constructions

Intransitive (Without an Object)

This consists of the bare verbal noun. It is negated with gan.

• Tá mé sásta siúl. - I am happy to walk.
• Tá mé sásta gan siúl. - I agree not to walk.

Transitive (With a Direct Object)

The object comes before the verbal noun, separated by the particle a (from do), which causes lenition.

When the object is a pronoun, it simply takes the place of the noun.

• Tá mé sásta iad a dhíol. - I agree to sell them.

Infinitive Construction with a Subject

Unlike in English, an Irish infinitive construction can have its own explicit subject. This often corresponds to a “that”-clause in English.

Intransitive with Subject

There is a key dialectal difference here.

• Northern (Ulster): Subject + VN
  • Ba mhaith liom tú pósadh. - I want you to marry.
• Southern (Connacht/Munster): Subject + a + VN
  • Ba mhaith liom tú a phósadh. - I want you to marry.

Transitive with Subject

Again, there are different patterns, broadly North vs. South.

• Northern (Ulster): The subject and object both come before the verbal noun.

  Subject + Object + a + VN
  an fear an obair a dhéanamh - that the man does the work

• Southern (Munster): The subject comes first, but the object follows the verbal noun in the genitive (or is represented by a possessive pronoun with á).

  Subject + a + VN + Genitive Object
  an fear a dhéanamh na hoibre - that the man does the work
  an fear á dhéanamh - that the man does it

Passive Infinitive Construction

Passive infinitive constructions are formed using bheith (the verbal noun of bí) combined with a passive structure.

• Progressive Passive: a bheith + á + VN
  • Is féidir rud éigin a bheith á dhéanamh aige. - It is possible that something is being done by him.
• Perfect Passive: a bheith + Verbal Adjective
  • Is féidir rud éigin a bheith déanta aige. - It is possible that something has been done by him.
• Prospective Passive: a bheith + le + VN
  • Is féidir rud éigin a bheith le déanamh aige. - It is possible that something is to be done by him.

Infinitive Construction of Purpose

These constructions correspond to the English “in order to…”.

With le or chun

The most common way to express purpose is with the prepositions le or chun followed by an infinitive construction.

With ag or a

After verbs of motion, the progressive particles ag (South) or a (North) can also be used to express purpose.

• Tháinig sé ag ól gloine. (Standard/South) - He came to drink a glass.
• Tháinig sé a ól gloine. (Ulster) - He came to drink a glass.

Temporal Constructions

Infinitive constructions can be used with certain prepositions to create temporal clauses, indicating when an action happened relative to the main clause. In these structures, the logical subject is often expressed with do + agent.

• Simultaneity (“while”): Uses le linn or ag.
  • le linn gloine a ól dom - while I drink a glass
• Anteriority (“after”): Uses tar éis or i ndiaidh.
  • tar éis gloine a ól dom - after I have drunk a glass
• Posteriority (“before”): Uses roimh.
  • roimh ghloine a ól dom - before I drink a glass

Verbal Noun as an Attribute

The verbal noun can act as an attribute to a noun, where the head noun is the subject of the verbal noun’s action. This is similar to an English present participle.

• fear inste scéil - a story-telling man / a man for telling stories
• lucht ólta poitín - poteen-drinkers

This is often an alternative to a relative clause: an fear atá ag insint scéil (the man who is telling a story).

Substantival Use

Finally, the verbal noun can be used as a regular noun, referring to the action itself as a concept. In this role, it can take an article, have a plural form, and be modified by adjectives.

• Tá an léamh go suimiúil. - The reading is interesting.
• Fuair mé orduithe uaidh. - I received orders from him.
• Is léamh maith é sin. - That is a good reading.