Classification

The Irish copula, is, is a special verb used to link a subject to a predicate, much like “to be” in English. However, unlike the main verb bí (which describes states, locations, and actions), the copula is used for definitions, classifications, and identifications. It has a unique and strict grammar that is very different from other verbs.

In Irish, all copula sentences can be divided into two main types: identification sentences and classification sentences.

• Identification sentences state that the subject and predicate are the same thing (X = Y).
• Classification sentences state that the subject belongs to a particular class or group (X is a member of Y).

These two sentence types have different grammatical structures.

Identification Sentences

An identification sentence, or an abairt ionannais, is typically a copula sentence with a definite predicative noun. It expresses the idea “X is the Y”, where the subject and predicate are identical.

With a Definite Noun as Subject After the Predicate

When the predicate is a definite noun (e.g., a noun with the article an), a pronoun é, í, or iad must be placed between the copula and the predicate. This pronoun is called a sub-predicate (fofhaisnéis) and acts as a placeholder, because a definite noun cannot directly follow the copula.

The choice of sub-predicate depends on the subject:

• é for masculine singular subjects: é mo theach (my house)
• í for feminine singular subjects: í an bhean (the woman)
• iad for plural subjects or multiple items: iad na fir (the men), iad an fear agus an bhean (the man and the woman)

The basic structure is: Copula + Sub-predicate + Predicate + Subject.

With a Definite Noun as Subject Before the Predicate

In some identification sentences, especially for emphasis, the subject can appear before the main predicate. However, the sub-predicate é/í/iad still comes before the subject, maintaining the core structure.

The structure is: Copula + Sub-predicate + Subject + Predicate.

The Sub-predicate

The agreement of the sub-predicate in this structure follows specific rules:

• The sub-predicate is always é when the main predicate is a go-clause or a verbal noun phrase. It agrees with the clause, not the grammatical gender of the subject noun.

  • Is é mo bharúil go bhfuil sé anseo. - It is my opinion that he is here. (Even though barúil is feminine, é is used because the predicate is the go-clause).

• When the predicate is a noun, the sub-predicate (é/í/iad) agrees with the gender and number of the subject.

  • Is é an chéad chrann a tharla dó saileach mhór. - The first tree he encountered was a large willow. (The sub-predicate é is masculine because the subject an chéad chrann is masculine, even though the predicate saileach mhór is feminine).

• When referring to people, the sub-predicate agrees with the natural gender of the person, regardless of the grammatical gender of the nouns involved.

  • Is í Máire an múinteoir. - Máire is the teacher. (The sub-predicate í is feminine for Máire, even though múinteoir is a masculine noun).
  • Is í an múinteoir a bhí agam ná Bríd. - The teacher I had was Bríd. (The sub-predicate í is feminine for Bríd, even though the subject an múinteoir is masculine).

Usage of This Structure

This sentence structure is used in several specific situations, most notably for emphasis in what are known as cleft sentences.

To Emphasise the Predicate (Cleft Sentences)

This is the most common use. The part of the sentence being emphasised becomes the predicate and is moved to the end.

• The subject is usually a definite noun, often followed by a relative clause. The article an of the subject can be omitted, especially with the word rud (thing).

• The noun rud is often used as a general-purpose subject, meaning “that which” or “what”.

• In Munster, the particle ná (or sometimes ach) is often placed before the main predicate. In other dialects, a slight pause is used instead.

• Is é an rud a chonaic mé ná capall. - What I saw was a horse.

• Is é an t-ainm a bhí air ná Seán. - The name he had was Seán.

• Is é an fear a bhí ann ná Seán. - The man who was there was Seán.

For Definitions

Cleft sentences are the standard way to form definitions in Irish.

• Is é rud is crann ann ná planda ard adhmadach. - A tree is a tall, woody plant. (Literally: “What a tree is, is a tall, woody plant.”)
• Is é atá sa bhéaloideas ná scéalta a chuirtear ar aghaidh ó ghlúin go glúin. - What folklore is, are stories that are passed on from generation to generation.

When the Predicate is a Clause or Verbal Noun

This structure is used when the predicate is a go-clause or a verbal noun phrase.

• Is é mo bharúil go bhfuil ceart agat. - It is my opinion that you are right.
• Is é m’aidhm Gaeilge a thuiscint. - My goal is to understand Irish.
• Ba é mo chomhairle dó an capall a dhíol. - My advice to him was to sell the horse.

When the Subject is a Proper Noun or Demonstrative

Proper nouns and demonstrative pronouns usually appear as the subject before the predicate.

• Is é Seán an dochtúir. - Seán is the doctor.
• Is é sin an dochtúir. - That is the doctor.
• Is é seo Seán Ó Néill. - This is Seán Ó Néill.

With 1st/2nd Person Pronouns (mé, tú, muid, sinn, sibh) as Subject

When the subject is a 1st or 2nd person pronoun, the word order changes to Copula + Subject + Predicate.

This structure focuses on the predicate (an dochtúir). It is the standard form for questions (An tú Seán? - Are you Seán?) but is less common in declarative statements.

In exclamations, the pronoun can come at the end and the copula is is omitted.

• Mo cheol thú! - Bravo! (Literally: “[You are] my music!”)
• Mo Dhia thú! - You are my God!

With 1st/2nd Person Pronouns (mé, tú, muid, sinn, sibh) as Predicate

To emphasise the pronoun, it is placed in the predicate position, immediately after the copula. In this case, the emphatic forms of the pronouns (mise, tusa, etc.) are used.

This is the more common structure for declarative sentences.

When two pronouns are involved, the first person comes before the second or third. The use of emphatic forms helps clarify which is the subject and which is the predicate.

• dá mba mise thusa - if you were me
• dá mba mé thú - if I were you

With 3rd Person Pronouns (é, í, iad) as Subject

When the subject is a 3rd person pronoun, the sentence uses both a sub-predicate and a subject pronoun.

The structure is: Copula + Sub-predicate + Predicate + Subject.

The first pronoun (é/í/iad) is the sub-predicate, required before the definite predicate. The second pronoun is the actual subject. The two pronouns must always agree in gender and number (e.g., é...é, í...í, iad...iad).

With 3rd Person Pronouns (é, í, iad) as Predicate

To emphasise a 3rd person pronoun, it is placed in the predicate position using its emphatic form (eisean, ise, iadsan) or with féin or a demonstrative (é sin).

This form is less common than its 1st and 2nd person counterparts.

Classification Sentences

A classification sentence, or an abairt aicme, uses an indefinite predicative noun. It expresses the idea “X is a Y”, assigning the subject to a class or group. For example, in “It is a horse,” the subject “it” is assigned to the class of things called “horse”.

With a Definite Subject

Normal Classification Sentence

The basic structure includes a pronoun called a sub-subject (fo-ainmní) between the predicate and the definite subject.

The sub-subject é/í/iad is often omitted, especially in Ulster.

• Is dochtúir (é) an fear. - The man is a doctor.

Left-Shift of the Predicate

To add emphasis, the predicate can be moved to the front of the sentence. The pronoun ea (“it”) then takes the predicate’s original position. This is called left-dislocation or fronting.

This structure is only used in positive statements. It is the standard, non-emphatic way to form classification sentences in Munster.

With Personal Pronouns as Subject

Normal Classification Sentence

Left-Shift of the Predicate

This emphatic structure is also used with personal pronouns, and is the standard form in Munster.

With an Indefinite Subject

When both the subject and predicate are indefinite, the structure is simple.

Copula and Adjectives

With an Attributive Adjective

Adjectives can modify any noun in a copula sentence without changing the basic structure.

• Is duine deas é an fear mór. - The big man is a nice person. (Classification)
• Is é an múinteoir nua an fear mór. - The big man is the new teacher. (Identification)

There is also a special structure for classification sentences where an adjective modifies an indefinite predicate noun.

Special Form of Classification Sentence

This structure emphasises the adjective by moving it to the front of the sentence. It uses the article an with the noun, even though the meaning is indefinite (“a nice person,” not “the nice person”).

The adjective in this structure is invariable and cannot be modified by adverbs like an- (very) or ró- (too).

• Is maith an fear é Dia. - God is a good man.
• Is ait an mac an saol. - Life is a strange son. (Proverb: “Life is strange.”)

This structure is often used in rhetorical questions to add emphasis.

• Nach fuar an lá é? - Isn’t it a cold day?

It is also used in exclamations, often with the copula omitted.

• Maith an buachaill! - Good boy! (from Is maith an buachaill thú.)

With a Predicative Adjective

A copula sentence with a predicative adjective is a type of classification sentence, as the adjective describes a class or quality.

The presence or absence of the sub-subject é/í/iad can add a subtle change in meaning:

• Is geal an solas. - The light is bright. (Describes an inherent, general quality of light.)
• Is geal é an solas. - The light is bright! (Describes the specific brightness of a particular light.)

Usage

Today, the verb bí is more commonly used with predicative adjectives (Tá an fear tinn. - The man is ill). However, the copula is still regularly used in several specific contexts:

• Subjective evaluation in exclamatory sentences:

  • Is deas é sin! - That’s nice!
  • Ní furasta í an teanga seo! - This language is not easy!

• Adjectives of equality like ionann (same) and cosúil (similar):

  • Is ionann iad. - They are the same.
  • Is cosúil go… - It seems that…

• Adjectives like deacair (difficult) and furasta (easy) followed by a verbal noun phrase:

  • Is deacair a rá go… - It is difficult to say that…

• Adjectives of indefinite quantity like iomaí (many) and beag (few):

  • Is iomaí fear a bhí ann. - Many a man was there.
  • Is beag duine a thuigeann é. - Few people understand it.

• Phrases with adjectives and prepositions (see next section):

  • Is maith liom é. - I like it.

• All comparatives and superlatives:

  • Is fearr Gaeilge bhriste ná Béarla cliste. - Broken Irish is better than clever English.

• Emphasis (cleft sentences), where an adverb is moved to the front:

  • Rinne sé an obair go cúramach. → Is cúramach a rinne sé an obair. - He did the work carefully.

With a Predicative Adjective and Prepositions

Many common expressions, especially those equivalent to modal verbs in English (should, can, like), are formed with the copula, an adjective, and a preposition.

The logical subject (the person who likes, should, can, etc.) is expressed by the prepositional pronoun (e.g., liom). The grammatical subject is the thing being discussed (e.g., fuisce a ól).

The choice of preposition is key:

• le indicates a subjective assessment (“I find…”).
  • Is maith liom é. - I like it. (I find it good.)
  • Is fada liom an lá. - I find the day long. (The day feels long to me.)
• do indicates an objective assessment (“good for…”).
  • Is maith bainne duit. - Milk is good for you.
  • Ba cheart dom imeacht. - I should leave. (It would be right for me to leave.)

Some nouns can also be used in this structure, such as dóigh (opinion), oth (regret), fuath (hatred), and féidir (possible).

• Is dóigh liom go bhfuil sé ceart. - I think he is right.
• Is fuath liom é. - I hate it.
• Is féidir liom snámh. - I can swim.

Some words appear in a special form in these constructions: eol (known), cuimhin (remembered), eagal (afraid).

• mar is eol duit - as you know
• Is maith is cuimhin liom é. - I remember it well.
• Is eagal liom go bhfuil sé déanach. - I’m afraid it’s late.

Dependent Forms of the Copula

The copula has special forms when used in dependent clauses, such as subordinate clauses, relative clauses, and conditional clauses.

In a go/nach-clause

Before a vowel, gur becomes gurb (present) or gurbh (past/conditional). This form is mainly used before pronouns and adjectives.

In a Direct Relative Clause

A direct relative clause refers to the subject of the clause.

In the past/conditional, ba becomes ab before a vowel or fh-. The negative nár becomes nárbh.

A special form is ... ann is used for definitions.

• Cad is crann ann? - What is a tree?
• Séard is crann ann ná planda ard. - A tree is a tall plant.

In an Indirect Relative Clause

An indirect relative clause refers to something other than the subject, often the object or an element governed by a preposition.

Before a vowel or fh-, ar becomes arb (present) or arbh (past/conditional).

This structure is common for classification and identification.

• an fear ar múinteoir é - the man who is a teacher
• an fear arb é an múinteoir é - the man who is the teacher

When a preposition is involved, it can combine with the relative particle, e.g., do + ar → dar.

• an fear darb ainm Seán - the man whose name is Seán

In a Real Conditional Clause (If…)

In an Unreal Conditional Clause (If… were…)

In an Optative Clause (Wishes)

These forms are used for wishes and blessings and are mostly found in fixed expressions.

Special Uses of the Copula

Indicating Possession

The construction is le is used to state that something belongs to someone. It is only used with definite nouns.

The question form is Cé leis é? (To whom does it belong?).

Indicating Origin

The construction is as is used to state where someone is from.

The question form is Cad as duit? or Cárb as duit? (Where are you from?).

Naming

Stating a Full Name

The standard way to state a name is with a cleft sentence structure. The name itself is treated as an indefinite noun.

• (Is) Seán is ainm dom. - My name is Seán.
• Nach Seán is ainm dó? - Isn’t his name Seán?
• Deir sé gur Seán is ainm dó. - He says his name is Seán.

The question form is Cad is ainm duit? (What is your name?).

Stating a Surname

To give just a surname, the construction is de is used.

The question form is Cér díobh thú? (What is your surname?).

Interrogative Sentences

Yes/No Questions

Yes/no questions are formed with special interrogative particles instead of is or ba.

Wh-questions with Cé, Cad, Céard

Questions with cé (who), cad (what), and céard (what) are inherently copula constructions. Cé means “who is,” and cad means “what is.”

Cé (Who is…?)

• Cé hí an bhean sin? - Who is that woman?
• Cé hé tusa? - Who are you?
• Cérbh í an bhean sin? - Who was that woman?

Cén / Cé na (Which…?)

Cén (cé + an) and cé na are used before a noun to ask “which?”.

• Cén leabhar é sin? - Which book is that?
• Cé na leabhair iad sin? - Which books are those?

Cad é / Céard (What is…?)

These are used to ask for definitions or identifications.

• Cad é an t-am? - What time is it?
• Céard é do bharúil? - What is your opinion?
• Cad é an rud é leabhar? - What is a book?
• Cad is leictreachas ann? - What is electricity?

Answers to Copula Questions

Irish has no single words for “yes” and “no”. To answer a yes/no question, you repeat the verb from the question. For the copula, this means repeating the predicate with the appropriate positive or negative copula form.

• For identification questions (“Is X the Y?”), the answer uses the pronoun é, í, or iad.
• For classification questions (“Is X a Y?”), the answer uses the pronoun ea.

The past/conditional forms are used when answering a past/conditional question.

• Ar mhúinteoir í? - Ba ea. (Was she a teacher? - Yes.)
• Arbh é an dochtúir é? - Níorbh é. (Was he the doctor? - No.)

Demonstrative Pronouns in Copula Sentences

The demonstrative pronouns seo (this), sin (that), and siúd (that over there) have special behaviour in copula sentences. There are two main structures: a long form and a short form.

• Long Form: A standard copula sentence where the demonstrative follows a pronoun (é seo, í sin). This form has a determining meaning (“This one is the teacher”).

  • Is é seo an múinteoir. - This is the teacher.
  • Is múinteoir é seo. - This is a teacher.

• Short Form: The demonstrative pronoun comes first, and the copula is is omitted. This form has a presenting, deictic meaning (“Here is the teacher”).

  • Seo é an múinteoir. - Here is the teacher.
  • Seo múinteoir. - Here is a teacher.

The short form is very common in speech. In dialects outside Ulster, when a copula form other than is is used, the s of the demonstrative is dropped.

Emphasis in Copula Sentences

The copula is the primary tool in Irish for emphasising different parts of a sentence, a process known as clefting.

Cleft Sentence

To emphasise a part of a sentence, you move it to the front after the copula is. The rest of the sentence becomes a direct relative clause.

• Is maith liom í. (I like her.) → Is ise is maith liom. (She is the one I like.)
• Ba cheart dóibh imeacht. (They should leave.) → Is dóibh ba cheart imeacht. (They are the ones who should leave.)

Pseudo-Cleft Sentence

This structure moves the emphasised element to the very end of the sentence for maximum focus. It uses a placeholder subject like is é an rud or séard (is + éard).

• Ba mhaith liom carr mór. (I would like a big car.) → Séard ba mhaith liom ná carr mór. (What I would like is a big car.)
• Is duine uasal tú. (You are a gentleman.) → Is é rud tú ná duine uasal. (What you are is a gentleman.)

Left-Dislocation of the Predicate

In classification sentences, the predicate can be moved to the front for emphasis, with ea taking its place. This is the standard structure in Munster.

• Is dochtúir é an fear. (The man is a doctor.) → Dochtúir is ea an fear. (A doctor is what the man is.)

Emphasis with bí

Unusually, to emphasise the predicate of a classification sentence, you can use a cleft sentence with the verb bí and the preposition i. This is common in Connacht and Ulster and is equivalent to the Munster left-dislocation.

• Is dochtúir í. (She is a doctor.) → Dochtúir atá inti. (A doctor is what she is.)

Miscellaneous Constructions

Ní … go …

This fixed proverbial structure means “There is no X without Y” or “It isn’t X until Y”.

• Ní féasta go rósta. - It’s not a feast without a roast.
• Ní neart go cur le chéile. - There is no strength without unity. (Unity is strength.)

Ní … go dtí …

This productive structure means “There is no X like Y” or “There was nothing to match Y”.

• Ní haoibhneas go dtí é. - There is no joy like it.
• Níor bhean go dtí í. - There was no woman like her.